Which of the Following Is True of Furniture Made as Part of the Arts and Crafts Movement?

Ancestry of The Arts & Crafts Movement

The Arts & Crafts movement grew out of several related strands of thought during the mid-19^th century. It was start and foremost a response to social changes initiated past the Industrial Revolution, which began in Great britain and whose sick effects were first evident there. Industrialization moved large numbers of working-course laborers into cities that were sick-prepared to deal with an influx of newcomers, crowding them into miserable ramshackle housing and subjecting them to dangerous, harsh jobs with long hours and low pay. Cities likewise became doused regularly with pollution from a bevy of new factories.

Critics such as the writer John Ruskin and builder Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin railed against these bug of industrialization. They assorted its vices with the Gothic era before the Renaissance, which they viewed every bit an idyllic fourth dimension period of piety and high moral standards as well as a healthful, green environment. For both Ruskin and Pugin, in that location was a strong clan between the morality of a nation and the course of its architecture, and the Gothic for them symbolized the peak of human evolution.

The Genesis: William Morris

The spark for the Arts & Crafts movement was the Great Exhibition of 1851, the first world's fair, held in London. The chief criticism of the manufactured objects on display was the anarchism of unnecessary ornament with little concern for utility. A young and well-heeled devotee of Ruskin's commentary was William Morris, an apprentice to the Gothic-Revival architect George Edmund Street. Morris too moved in the aforementioned circles as the painter Edward Burne-Jones and the Pre-Raphaelite artists, including Dante Gabriel Rossetti, all of whom were fascinated by medieval art and nature. In 1861, Morris founded the decorative arts business firm Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co., along with Burne-Jones, Rossetti, Philip Webb, Ford Madox Brownish, Charles Faulkner, and Peter Paul Marshall, which specialized in wallpaper designs featuring natural imagery.

In 1859 Morris had commissioned Webb to pattern a house for his family in London, named appropriately "Red House" due to the deep color of its brick. Its steep roofs, L-shaped asymmetrical program, and overhanging eaves recall the Gothic mode, with the brick introducing a simple, pedestrian bear on, which contribute to its general recognition as the outset Arts & Crafts building. Residences, viewed by the Arts & Crafts practitioners as a bulwark against the harsh conditions of industrialization, a regenerative spiritual haven, and the locus of the traditional family unit of measurement, became the building type most associated with the movement (a rather interesting occurrence, every bit most people acquaintance "Arts & Crafts" with paw-fabricated objects).

Morris' firm grew throughout the 1860s and 1870s, particularly equally Morris garnered important interior design commissions, such equally for St. James'south Palace (1866) and the Light-green Dining Room at the South Kensington (now Victoria & Albert) Museum (1866-68). It besides expanded in terms of the range of items that it manufactured, including article of furniture, such every bit the famous "Morris chair," textiles, and somewhen stained glass. In 1875, Morris - whose relationship with Rossetti particularly had deteriorated (in function due to Rossetti's affair with Morris' wife) - bought out his partners and reorganized the firm as Morris & Co.

Morris' firm emphasized the use of handcraft equally opposed to machine product, creating works of very high quality that Morris ultimately hoped would inspire cottage industries amid the working classes and bring pleasure to their labors, thus creating a kind of democratic art. Morris himself became involved in every step of production of the company's items, thus reviving the thought that the designer or creative person should guide the entire creative procedure every bit opposed to the mechanical sectionalization of labor that was increasingly used in most factories. He also revived the employ of organic natural dyes. The utilise of handcraft and natural sources, however, became extremely labor-intensive, and Morris was not entirely averse to the utilize of mechanical production. Nonetheless, the popularity of Morris' work in Britain, Continental Europe, and the U.s. grew considerably, peculiarly after the opening of a new store at 449 Oxford Street in 1877 with trained, professional person staff.

Morris, who had taught himself calligraphy in the 1860s, had always been interested in typography and manuscripts. In 1891 he established the Kelmscott Printing to print editions of Geoffrey Chaucer, and Ruskin, among others, including 23 of his own works - such as the rambling utopian novel News From Nowhere - in exquisite carefully-designed tomes that rival the artistic claim of medieval manuscripts, though the Kelmscott Press folded the twelvemonth after Morris' expiry in 1896.

The Arts & Crafts Motility: Concepts, Styles, and Trends

Societies, Communities, and Exhibitions

Morris' success and his accent on vernacular and rural imagery inspired many others to create collective associations where groups of artists and artisans collaborated on designs in a wide variety of media. In 1882 Arthur Heygate Mackmurdo founded The Century Social club, a group aimed at preserving handcraft and the authenticity of the creative person, whose piece of work included furniture, stained glass, metalwork, decorative painting, and architectural blueprint. The lodge gained recognition through several exhibitions throughout the 1880s before disbanding in 1892. Likewise, in 1884 Eglantyne Louisa Jebb founded the Home Arts and Industries Association, which funded schools and organized marketing opportunities for rural communities to sustain them through handcraft cottage industries; within 5 years it had grown to include 450 classes that employed 1,000 teachers instructing some v,000 students.

In 1887, the Arts & Crafts Exhibition Society, which gave the movement its name, was formed in London, with Walter Crane as its get-go president. Information technology held its first exhibition there in November 1888 in the New Gallery. The aims were to "[ignore] the stardom betwixt Fine and Decorative fine art" and to allow the "worker to earn the title of artist." Dominated by the decorative arts, and bolstered by a strong selection of works by Morris & Co., the kickoff two exhibitions were financial successes. Upon switching to a three-twelvemonth cycle starting in 1893, the Gild'south exhibitions served to go along the Arts & Crafts motion in the public center and proved to exist disquisitional successes into the new century - though by the 1920s persistent organizational bug and the organization'due south antipathy towards car production ultimately doomed its original mission.

Architecture and the Diversity in Media

In office because the Arts & Crafts constituted a comprehensive philosophy of living as opposed to a distinct aesthetic style, its scope extended to virtually every attribute of the decorative arts, design, and architecture. There were very few Arts & Crafts designers, specially among architects, whose work did not span several different media. Philip Webb, Charles Francis Annesley Voysey, William Lethaby, Charles Robert Ashbee, and Richard Norman Shaw exemplify this holistic trend - furthermore, it is rare to find a progressive architect in Uk in the latter half of the xix^th century whose career was not touched by the Arts & Crafts.

In compages the Arts & Crafts movement did not develop into one particular edifice fashion, but could exist seen in a multitude of strains. The quintessentially Arts-and-Crafts building, all the same, might be the classic American bungalow - the stout, boxy, single-family dwelling of one or two stories with a prominent porch, distinguished by a hipped roof with wide overhanging eaves supported past thick beams. In both Great britain and the United states of america, the simplicity, unvarnished, and rough-hewn aesthetic of the Arts & Crafts could be seen mixed in with a multifariousness of stylistic preferences - Queen Anne, Eastlake, Tudor Revival, Stick Style, Spanish Colonial Revival, and Gothic Revival being the most prominent. In Britain, the Garden Metropolis Motion and company towns such as Port Sunlight often made utilise of such "hybrid" Arts & Crafts-based styles in their designs for housing.

Human relationship with Art Nouveau

One fashion that in particular shared many theoretical and visual qualities with the Arts & Crafts was Art Nouveau, which emerged in part from the Arts & Crafts in Europe during the belatedly 1880s. Both the Arts & Crafts and Art Nouveau placed an emphasis on nature and claimed the Gothic style equally an inspiration; both spanned the complete breadth of the various branches of the arts, with an emphasis on the decorative arts and compages and their power to physically reshape the unabridged human environs; and visually, both styles made use of a rural, homely aesthetic using rough-hewn stone and woods.

It is difficult to fully categorize many designers as belonging to the Arts & Crafts movement or working in the Art Nouveau style. Henry van de Velde, Charles Rennie Mackintosh, Will Bradley, and a host of other artists and architects are just a few of those artists variously described as straddling this purlieus, which remains rather unclear. Many Art Nouveau artists even freely best-selling their debt to the writings and philosophy of William Morris. Where the Arts & Crafts emphasized simplicity and saw the car as deeply problematic, even so, Art Nouveau ofttimes embraced complication and new applied science, sometimes to the point of disguising the truth of materials for visual effect. Art Nouveau also drew on a much wider stylistic base than the Arts & Crafts, finding inspiration from the Baroque, Romanesque, and the Rococo and fifty-fifty Islamic and Eastward Asian sources along with the Gothic. Its very proper name of "New Art" spoke to the international attempts to invent a style for the 20^th century instead of rejecting the weather of modernistic life. As such, Art Nouveau was also less associated than the Arts & Crafts with the power to completely change attitudes and social mores, but rather was often used to embellish and enchant the viewer into a dreamy world of pleasure, sometimes tinged with exoticism.

Spread to the United States

British Arts & Crafts were known in the Usa from the 1860s, and their ideas were disseminated freely through newspapers, magazines, and journals throughout the 1880s and 1890s. A key engagement was 1897, the year the first American Arts & Crafts Exhibition began in April in Boston's Copley Hall, featuring more than yard objects by 160 craftsmen, half of whom were women. Its success gave nascency to the Society of Arts & Crafts at the finish of June, dedicating itself to "develop and encourage higher standards in the handcrafts," with an accent on "the necessity of sobriety and restraint" in design, along with "due regard for the relation between the class of an object and its utilize." Charles Eliot Norton, professor of art history at Harvard University, served equally the SAC'southward first president. Equally every bit important, that aforementioned year at Hull Business firm in Chicago nether the auspices of Jane Addams the just-named Arts & Crafts Society was organized, as an outgrowth of the Progressive Movement, functioning as a tool for pedagogy new immigrants useful skills to support themselves.

Even earlier then, the collectivist spirit of the Arts & Crafts had struck a vein with ambitious American reformers. In 1895, Elbert Hubbard, a bookish, loquacious former lather salesman who had visited England and drunkard deeply from the ideas of William Morris, founded the reform community of craftsmen in E Aurora, New York, called Roycroft. Over the next twenty years, Hubbard's compound of metalworkers, furniture shops, leatherworkers, and (of course) printers and bookbinders would go i of the almost agog representatives of the movement in America until his expiry on the Lusitania in May 1915. Similar notable utopian communities centered around the Arts & Crafts sprang up in places such as Rose Valley, Pennsylvania and the Byrdcliffe Colony in Woodstock, New York. In 1907 the furniture manufacturer Gustav Stickley founded a manual-labor school for boys called Craftsman Farms in Parsippany, New Bailiwick of jersey, as an experimental, immersive Arts & Crafts environment, simply it presently turned out to exist a financial failure and Stickley ended upwardly moving his family unit into the buildings instead.

Corporate Culture

Unlike their counterparts in Britain, many of the American practitioners and advocates of the Arts & Crafts Move were motivated by a distinctly capitalist drive, viewing the simple aesthetic of the Arts & Crafts every bit a way to ennoble the new consumerist mass social club created by industrialization of the late-19^th century with a kind of moral influence that would create a sense of social harmony. Hubbard and Stickley, whose furniture designs were sold both past mail order and through his exhibit in New York City, did much to promote this idea - Hubbard through his mag The Fra and Stickley through his, titled The Craftsman, which eventually gave the Arts & Crafts the popular alternative moniker "Craftsman Mode." Such publications were ostensibly founded with the intention of promoting a simple lifestyle, the honest employ of materials in handcraft, and an independent spirit in design and construction for the common man, but their articulate purpose was to market place the products of their respective publishers. Concomitant with such attitudes, the major figures of the American Arts & Crafts Movement fully embraced the machine equally an advantage for mass product and therefore fatter profits, not a hindrance to quality.

The commercialization of the Arts & Crafts in the United States might all-time be seen in the large corporate bodies that manufactured and marketed their crafts in mass quantities, though this attribute has not diminished their value on the collectors' market even today. Studio pottery operations such as Rookwood, Greuby Faience, Marblehead, Teco, and Overbeck are some of the best-known names in this respect, whose pieces are ofttimes known solely past their company monikers, thus diminishing - at least until recently - the identity and credit given to the designers and individual makers and decorators. Such was likewise initially the instance at the for-profit Newcomb Pottery, part of the art school in the eponymous women's college at Tulane University in New Orleans. Other smaller pottery operations, such as Eagle in Arkansas (producers of Niloak) and Bybee in Kentucky, represent the sometimes highly regional character of Arts & Crafts design. Nonetheless, some individuals' skills with their own practices, such equally the metalworker Dirk van Erp and ceramicist Ernest Batchfelder, both in California, demonstrate the diverse nature of the Arts & Crafts in the The states.

Politics

Equally a reactionary artistic movement that grew specifically out of social commentary and advocated reform, the Arts & Crafts Move was destined to be tied to politics. Morris himself was the most significant Arts & Crafts figure as a staunch socialist and anti-imperialist, founding the Socialist League in 1884 and advocating worldwide workers' revolution, giving public lectures around the UK and editing the League's newspaper, the Commonweal. Morris spent more time in the 1880s as a political activist than he did as a designer, though his reputation as a poet preceded him during his lifetime, which at least in role explains why his obituaries from 1896 barely mentioned his political views. Many of Morris' boyfriend artists, such every bit William Lethaby and Walter Crane, were as well prominent socialists.

While they admired and promoted Morris' desire to restore joy to both artistic and transmission labor, American Arts & Crafts adherents largely ignored or rejected Morris' political views. Hubbard and Stickley, for example, made no cloak-and-dagger of their capitalist ambitions, and marketed their work expressly to a growing middle-grade audience as a complement to, not a reaction against, the economic organization wrought by industrialization. Hubbard'south professed praise of Morris, Ruskin, Leo Tolstoy, and others, which by the 1910s had evolved into an agog defense of free enterprise and American ingenuity, earned him much criticism for "selling out." The Movement in the U.s.a. was as well equivocal on gender issues: while information technology counted many women amongst its practitioners and advocates, including a few prominent ones such every bit Jane Addams and the architect Julia Morgan, few women Arts & Crafts artists received significant recognition during their lifetimes, and some were fifty-fifty limited to the type of labor that they were allowed to perform in the artistic process. At the Newcomb Pottery in New Orleans, specifically dedicated to female creative teaching, only the male potter (usually Joseph Meyer) was permitted to throw the vessels that the women students painted.

Afterwards Developments - After The Arts & Crafts Motility

Alternative Names

Particularly in the United states of america, the Arts & Crafts Movement is known by several other names, the most prominent being the Craftsman Fashion, popularized by Gustav Stickley (and, by extension the article of furniture produced by his brothers' rival furniture firms), as advertised in his magazine The Craftsman, published between 1901 and 1916. "American Craftsman" is often colloquially used for bungalows and related Arts-and-Crafts-inspired houses. The term "Mission Style" or "Mission furniture" also remains oft used, originally meant to draw a chair fabricated past A.J. Forbes in 1894 for San Francisco's Swedenborgian Church building, but popularized in 1898 past Joseph McHugh, a New York furniture manufacturer, in reference to the uncomplicated furnishings of Spanish missions in California. Frequently considerable overlap exists between a Castilian Colonial aesthetic and the Arts & Crafts, particularly in the American W. On the other hand, it should be noted that the vernacular use of the term "Arts & Crafts" in reference to personal hobby-centered activities and retailing bears no relationship to the formal Arts & Crafts Movement.

Decline and Broadcasting

Several factors contributed to the Arts & Crafts move's demise in the xx^th century. Fundamental to its pass up was the inherent trouble of handcraft - which is labor-intensive - to be hands produced in great quantities and cheaply enough to reach a mass audience. Morris was never able to solve this paradox, since his goal was to create a democratic art for the masses, and as time went on, he grumbled oftentimes that his house catered to wealthy clients most exclusively. The issues were not unique to his company, as many other Arts & Crafts practitioners on both sides of the Atlantic were forced to adopt machine production, oftentimes with a decrease in quality in order to stay adrift, and several merely went out of business organisation. Many cooperative art colonies, particularly in the The states, discovered that such a commonage enterprise built on handcraft was no longer sustainable on a long-term basis. Finally, like many other movements, the Arts & Crafts fell victim to changing tastes: at the dawn of the new century, a newfound respect for a traditional Neoclassicism emerged - the Edwardian Baroque Revival in United kingdom and the Metropolis Beautiful Movement in the USA - both of which largely spelled the end of the Arts & Crafts Movement as a mainstream miracle after World War I.

Pockets of the Arts & Crafts Movement managed to survive among individuals and commonage creative enterprises well into the middle of the 20^th century. The Hawkeye Pottery that produced Bybee potteries in the American Southward enjoyed their best years during the 1930s, and the Newcomb College and Teco potteries continued product into the early 1940s. The Arts & Crafts Exhibition Lodge yet exists in modified course every bit the Society of Designer Craftsmen and holds periodic exhibitions. As with many movements of pattern and compages - and even more so than virtually - the Arts & Crafts artful continues to influence inexpensive, highly commercialized lines of products - particularly using faux and constructed materials - frequently marketed today in department stores and past other retailers.

Legacy

The notion of craft and the visibility of the artist's hand as a key tenet of creative product, as the Arts & Crafts Motility encouraged, proved inspirational for many dissimilar artists, designers, and collective movements in Europe and North America, often at the aforementioned time as the Arts & Crafts itself flourished. In Scotland, Charles Rennie Mackintosh and the Glasgow School are sometimes grouped in with other Arts & Crafts designers. Many proponents of Art Nouveau cited William Morris as a major influence on their work, and the movement was especially admired in Republic of austria and Deutschland, where design schools based in handcraft, artists' colonies like that at Darmstadt, and planned garden cities echoed the tenets of the Arts & Crafts and claimed it as their straight antecedent. Such was the case with the Bauhaus as founded by Walter Gropius in 1919, which perhaps went farther and exhibited distinctly socialist tendencies that forced the school to relocate multiple times before its closure in 1933.

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Source: https://www.theartstory.org/movement/arts-and-crafts/history-and-concepts/